In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in revolt against Rome, naming their new kingdom “Israel”. The events of the siege of Jerusalem (69–70 CE) were described by the Jewish historian Josephus. The heroic last stand at Gamla where 9,000 died and in Masada (72–73 CE) where 960 killed themselves rather than fall into the hand of their enemies was also described.
The Christians fled from Jerusalem in 66 CE, remembering the Lord’s words in Matthew 24:15. They relocated in Pella and some returned to Jerusalem later. The Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus crushed the revolt. The Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem (only part of the Western Wall remained) and took the Menorah and other Temple artifacts back to Rome. Josephus writes that 1,100,000 Jews perished during the revolt, while another 97,000 were taken captive.
In the 2nd century, the Jews continued to rebel against the Roman rule. The Kitos War (115–117 CE) was followed by the fierce Bar-Kochba revolt (132–136 CE) led by Simon Bar Kochba. Julius Severus and Emperor Hadrian crushed the rebellion and destroyed 50 fortified Judean towns and 985 villages, killing close to 600,000 Jews.
After Rome’s victory over the rebellious Jews and the death of Bar Kochba, more Jews were exiled from the land, and Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina by the Romans and became a Hellenistic city. Jews were banned from entering the city. Judea and Israel’s names were changed to Syria Palaestina, (from which derived “Palestine” in English and “Filistin” in Arabic) in order to erase any Jewish connection and identification with the Land of Israel and Judea.
Hadrian placed images of Jupiter and Venus on the Temple Mount not far from the site of Golgotha. Other Roman structures were built in the city such as a theater, a hippodrome, public baths, and an aqueduct.
On the farthest end of the southern city and the present Temple Mount wall, there was a large stone found with the following inscription: “No Jews were allowed in the city”. (The stone is accidentally placed upside down.) Hadrian had a wall built around Jerusalem.
Jesus’ prophecy had been fulfilled:
Jerusalem was trodden down by the Gentiles (Luke. 21:22-24).
At a later period Jews were finally permitted to go to the surrounding mountains, probably the Mount of Olives, to gaze at their once beloved city. Around the 4th century, Jews purchased permission from the Romans to enter the city once a year, on the day of the destruction of both the first and the second temples, the 9th of Av, in order to weep and mourn the destruction of the temple and the dispersion of Israel.
At this time the split of early Christianity and Judaism occurred. The Pharisee movement, led by Yochanan ben Zakai, made peace with Rome and survived. A Jewish center of learning was established at Yavneh under his leadership. Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers and were allowed to practice Judaism. An estimated 2/3 of the demographic of the Galilee and 1/3 of the coastal region was Jewish. The remaining Jewish community moved to northern towns in the Galilee. The Sanhedrin moved to Tsippori (Zippori, Sepphoris).
Jewish scholars were trained in seminaries and became members of the Sanhedrin. It was in this era, that the Council of Yavneh canonized the Hebrew Bible and left out the Jewish apocryphal books. This was also the time of the great debates (pilpulim) of the Jewish sages’ (tannaim and amoraim) that were compiled and recorded as the Jewish Oral Law, Mishna, and Tosafta, by Judah HaNassi. Judah HaNassi (the Prince) was the head of the Sanhedrin around 200 CE. These texts were the foundation of the Jerusalem Talmud, which was edited around 400 CE, probably in Tiberias.
In 140 CE Antoninus, the son-in-law of Hadrian, became emperor. He was a great friend of the Jews, and of Rabbi Judah HaNassi. He reigned twenty-four years.
Antoninus’ son-in-law Marcus Aurelius, also called Marcus Antoninus, succeeded him in 164 CE. Commodus, the grandson of Marcus Aurelius, became Emperor in 183 CE. Commodus was a cruel ruler and an enemy of the Jews.
Septimius Severus, a severe and harsh governor, became emperor in 195 CE. In 204 CE he went to battle in the East, and after several bloody battles made important conquests, and penetrated as far as the Tigris River. In the later years of his life, he became more just and humane.
In 225 CE, Alexander Severus became emperor and was good to the Jews. In 234 CE a fierce struggle erupted in Palestine between the Jews, led by Caudius, and the Samaritans. This struggle lasted until Alexander finally had to interfere and restore peace in the country. To do this, he executed many Jews and Samaritans.
Decius Troanus ruled from 254 CE for only about 1½ years, followed by Diocletia in 289 CE.
325 CE Emperor Constantine’s Rise to Power
Flavius Valerius Constantine was born in the city of Naissus, (today Niš, Serbia) in 272 CE. His father was Flavius Constantius, who was an officer in the Roman army, later promoted by Emperor Diocletian to the governorship of Dalmatia. In July 285 CE, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Maximian ruled in the West, from his capital at Mediolanum (today Milan, Italy), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (today İzmit, Turkey).
Constantine received a formal education at the court of Diocletian where he lived with his father. There he studied Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. In the open cultural environment, he had intellectual friends both pagan and Christian. Constantine became a prominent member of the court and later became a soldier for Emperor Diocletian fighting against barbarians, the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia.
In late 302 CE, Constantine witnessed the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history at the hand of Diocletian. On February 23rd 303 CE, and the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned.
In the winter of 304–305 CE, due to a debilitating illness, Diocletian announced his resignation and appointed Galerius, instead of Constantine, as his successor. It was now dangerous for Constantine to remain in Galerius’ court and he escaped to join his father Constantius in Gaul, and later they crossed the English Channel to Britain.
Before dying of a severe illness, Constantine’s father Constantius declared his support for his son as leader. The troops loyal to Constantius in Gaul and Britain accepted Constantine’s rule while Hispania rejected it. By the middle of 310 CE, Galerius had become very ill, and before he died in 311 CE, he proclaimed an end to the persecutions and the resumption of religious tolerance.
In the summer of 311 CE, Maxentius declared war on Constantine. In the spring of 312 CE, Constantine decided to attack the large Maxentius’ force camped in Verona, led by his general Ruricius. It was a move against the advice of his followers, who warned him of the danger. However, they were deeply impressed by his bravery, thinking that a spirit gave him a form of supernatural guidance. Constantine laid siege to the city. In the desperate fight that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. Verona surrendered soon afterward, followed by other cities. Now Constantine looked toward Rome.
[need the pic] Colossal head of Constantine, from a seated statue: a youthful, classic, other-worldly official image (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
In 324 CE the great civil war erupted. After several battles against Licinius and his commander Martius, Constantine won them all and eventually killed all of his opponents.
In 325 CE Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. He appointed his mother Helena, already a Christian, as queen.
Contrary to popular belief, Constantine did not make Christianity the official religion of the empire. This was accomplished by Emperor Theodosius in 380 CE. Constantine’s program was one of tolerance only, and he continued to support both Christianity and paganism. In 313 CE Constantine issued the “Edict of Milan,” which granted official tolerance of Christianity and other religions. He ordered that Sunday be granted the same legal rights as pagan feasts and that feasts in memory of Christian martyrs be recognized.
Constantine also outlawed gladiatorial shows (although they persisted until the 5th century) and forbade Jews to stone other Jews who had converted to Christianity to death.
In 314 CE the cross appeared on Constantine’s coins, but so did the figures of Sol Invictus and Mars Conservator. He raised his children as Christians and made Christian clergy his personal advisors, but retained the title Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the state cult, until his death.
In CE 324 Aelia Capitolina was renamed Jerusalem and the title “Holy City” was restored to her, but for Christians, not the Jews. The pagan temple of Hadrian was destroyed and the Church of Holy Zion was built on the Temple Mount. Judea, still called Palestina, which was a small province of the Empire, became the Holy Land, the main center for Christians, and thousands made pilgrimages to the holy sites.
Jews were not permitted to live in Jerusalem but were allowed to visit the Holy City once a year, again on the 9th of Av, the Jewish date of the destruction of both Temples. They would pour oil over the remaining stones, lament and weep, tear their garments and mourn over the destruction. Then they would return home. However, Jews were allowed to practice their religion, as long as they paid the taxes demanded of Judah. Circumcision was permitted, the Jewish Sabbath and festivals were recognized, synagogues protected, and Jewish courts of justice functioned under their own laws.
Queen Helena built churches in major spots where Jesus was born, died, buried, and rose from the grave. The most famous to this day is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Constantine had churches and monasteries built in many places in the land.
Constantine crowned the city of Byzantium as “New Rome”, popularly known as Constantinople. The great Roman Empire was split and Constantinople became the capital of the East Roman Empire known as the Byzantine Empire. Under the Byzantines, Christianity, dominated by the (Greek) Orthodox Church, was adopted as the official religion. Palestine was included in the eastern division, and many believers in Christianity now began to settle in the Holy Land.
Before crossing into Persia for battle, Constantine planned to stop in the Holy Land to be baptized in the Jordan River, where it was believed Christ had been baptized, but had to cancel the trip when he became ill in the spring of 337 CE. He died on May 22nd of that year, the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost.
337 CE Byzantine Age of the Roman Empire
337 – 361 CE – Emperor Constantinus II, Constantine’s second son. In the year 351 CE, the Jews, who were persecuted under the Roman emperor, rebelled. The rebellion was quickly and decisively crushed, destroying the towns of Sepphoris, Tiberias, and others.
361 – 363 CE – Emperor Julian “the Apostate”, cousin of Constantius II ruled the empire.
From 364 CE there was a succession of Byzantine Emperors who ruled for short periods of time.
Starting in the year 390 CE, the Holy Land became predominately Christian. The area was divided into the provinces of Palestina Prima, Palestina Secunda, and Palestina Tertia.
From 404-527 CE laws against Jews became progressively more and more severe. Jews were excluded from governmental posts and all public civilian military offices. There was one office that the Jews were allowed to assume, the office of the tax collector. Tax collectors were required to pay all deficits in revenues from their own pocket. The purpose of this was, that the Jews “never enjoy the fruits of office, but only suffer its pains and penalties”. The Byzantines, in general, were very anti-Semitic and treated Jews like foreigners in their own homeland. Jews were not allowed to enter Jerusalem without special permission and again, only allowed to pray there on the 9th of Av. The Jewish religion was only allowed to survive, not thrive, so it would remain a very small minority and not threaten the monopoly of Orthodox Christianity within the Empire.
Jews were not allowed to purchase Christian slaves, only to retain ownership of existing ones. Construction of new synagogues within the Empire was prohibited, only the repair of old synagogues was permitted. In 545 CE, Emperor Justinian ordered that existing synagogues be converted into churches. This law, however, was hardly enforced, but it established the point of Judaism as inferior to Christianity. For instance, the Jews were forbidden to celebrate Passover if it fell on a date prior to Easter, and had to delay the celebration until after Easter.
There were other restrictions on Judaism under the Theodosian Code like the requirement that the public reading of the Torah could not be in Hebrew and the prohibition of the reading of the Mishna (Oral Torah/law). That kind of restriction on the religious freedom of the Jews prompted Jewish scholars to write other important works of religious expression.
In 614 CE the Persians invaded Palestine and, with the help of the Jews, defeated the Byzantines. Jews were allowed once again to live in Jerusalem. However, in 629 CE the Byzantines returned and defeated the Persians, and restored Christianity in Jerusalem, including the ban on Jews living there.